A Gender Perspective on Water Resources and Sanitation*

Marcia M. Brewster, Thora Martina Herrmann, Barbara Bleisch and Rebecca Pearl

Abstract:

Women are closely connected to and affected by use of, access to and control over water resources, including water supply and sanitation facilities. Drawing on case studies from Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Asia, this article: analyses the central role women play in providing, managing and safeguarding water resources and sanitation services; examines the issues of concern to be addressed in order to implement a gender-sensitive approach to water management and sanitation; and makes recommendations for strategies to mainstream gender perspectives in the field of water resources and sanitation management.

Key-words: women’s rights, gender mainstreaming, sustainable development, sanitation, water resources management.

In German:

Die Gender-Perspektive im Wasserressourcenmanagement und der sanitären Grundversorgung,

In vielen Kulturen ist die Beschaffung von Wasser Frauensache, und der freie Zugang zu Quellen, Brunnen und sanitären Grundeinrichtungen betrifft massgeblich Frauen. Basierend auf Fallstudien aus Lateinamerika, Afrika, dem Nahen Osten, Europa und Asien, analysiert dieser Artikel zunächst die zentrale Rolle der Frauen bei der Einrichtung, Verwaltung und Erhaltung von Wasserressourcen und sanitären Anlagen; beleuchtet anschliessend die Probleme, die berücksichtigt werden müssen, um geeignete Rahmenbedingungen für eine Gleichstellung der Geschlechter im Wasserressourcenmanagement und im Basissanitärwesen herzustellen; und gibt schliesslich konkrete Empfehlungen für die Umsetzung eines Genderansatzes, also der Sicherstellung der Gleichberechtigung der Geschlechter auf dem Gebiet des integrierten Wasserressourcenmanagements sowie der nachhaltigen Wasserver- und Abwasserentsorgung und der sanitären Grundversorgung.

Schlüsselwörter: Frauenrechte, gender mainstreaming, nachhaltige Entwicklung, Basissanitärwesen, Wasserressourcenmanagement

In Italian:

La gestione di risorse idriche ed impianti igienici - una prospettiva di genere, Marcia M. Brewster, Thora Martina Herrmann, Barbara Bleisch and Rebecca Pearl

In molte culture l’approvvigionamento dell’acqua, l’accesso alle risorse idriche e agli impianti igienici nonché il loro controllo sono compiti che spettano principalmente alle donne. Basandosi su case studies provenienti da America Latina, Africa, Medio Oriente, Europa e Asia, il presente contributo analizza in primo luogo il ruolo centrale giocato dalle donne nel procurare, gestire e salvaguardare risorse idriche e impianti igienici; illustra poi le questioni di fondo che vanno considerate per giungere a un’equiparazione tra i sessi nella gestione di tali risorse e impianti; suggerisce infine strategie concrete per affermare una prospettiva di genere, e garantire dunque il riconoscimento di eguali diritti ai sessi, nel settore della gestione delle risorse idriche, del rifornimento e dello smaltimento delle acque, e in quello della previdenza sanitaria di base.

Key-words: eguali diritti ai sessi, previdenza sanitaria di base, prospettiva di genere, risorse idriche.

In Russian:

Водные ресурсы и санитария в гендерной перспективе.

 Использование водных ресурсов и санитария, доступ к ним и контроль над ними тесно связаны с жизнью женщин и влияют на жизнь женщин. Пользуясь результатами исследований, проведённых в Латинской Америке, Африке, Европе, Азии и на Ближнем Востоке, эта статья анализирует ключевую роль женщин в обеспечении и управлении водными ресурсами, их охране и санитарии, рассматривает проблемы, которые требуют внимания для того, чтобы применить на практике гендерный подход к управлению водными ресурсами и санитарией, и даёт рекомендации для стратегий приоритетного развития гендерных перспектив в области водных ресурсов и санитарии.

Ключевые слова: права женщин, приоритное развитие гендерных концепций, устойчивое развитие при щадящем природопользовании, санитария, управление водными ресурсами.

In French:

La gestion de l’eau et de l'assainissement dans une perspective de genre ,

Les femmes sont très profondément concernées et affectées par l'usage, l'accès et le contrôle des ressources en eau, de l'approvisionnement en eau et des installations d'eau potable et d'assainissement. En se fondant sur des études de cas issues d’Amérique latine, d’Afrique, du Moyen-Orient, de l’Europe et de l’Asie, cet article analyse tout d’abord le rôle central que jouent les femmes dans la protection des ressources en eau, dans l’approvisionnement en eau saine et dans la gestion des installations sanitaires ; il examine ensuite les problèmes à prendre en considération afin de mettre en place une approche genre dans la gestion de l’eau et de l’assainissement ; et enfin il recommande des stratégies visant à prendre sérieusement en compte les perspectives du genre dans les domaines de la gestion des ressources en eau et de celle des infrastructures d'eau potable et d'assainissement.

Mots-clés : droits des femmes, intégration d’une démarche soucieuse d’égalité entre les sexes, développement durable, assainissement, gestion des ressources en eau

In Portugese:

La gerência da água e saneamento - una perspectiva deste género

As mulheres estão profundamente relacionadas e afectadas para o uso, acesso, e controlo da água e saneamento. Baseado nos estudos de casos da América Latina, África, Médio Oriente, Europa e Ásia, este artigo analisa o papel principal das mulheres em fornecer, manejar e salvaguardar os recursos da água e saneamento; examina os factores que deve tomar conta para implementar uma metodologia de gerência da água e saneamento que esta sensível ao género; e recomenda estratégias para centralizar as perspectivas deste género no campo da gerência da água e saneamento.

Key-words: direitos de mulheres, perspectiva deste género, os recursos da água, saneamento.

In Spanish:

La gestión de los recursos hídricos y el manejo de los servicios de saneamiento—desde una perspectiva de género

Las mujeres están íntimamente lingadas a y son afectadas por el uso, acceso y control del recurso agua y de las instalaciones de agua potable y saneamiento. Basado en estudios de caso de América Latina, Africa, el Medio Oriente, Europa y Asia, este artículo analiza el papel central que juegan las mujeres en la protección del recurso agua, en la provisión de agua potable y en el manejo de los servicios de saneamiento; el artículo examina los factores que deben tomarse en cuenta para establecer un enfoque sensible al género en la gestión del agua y del saneamiento; finalmente recomienda estrategias para integrar las perspectivas de género en el ámbito de la gestión de los recursos hídricos y del manejo de los servicios de agua potable y saneamiento.

Palabras-claves: derechos humanos de la mujer; incorporación de la perspectiva de género; desarrollo sostenible; saneamiento; gestión de los recursos hídricos

I. Introduction: Gender, water and sanitation

Women’s lives all around the world are closely connected to and affected by use of and access to water resources. In most societies, women have primary responsibility for management of water supply, sanitation and health at the household level. Water is necessary not only for drinking but also for food production and preparation, care of domestic animals, personal hygiene, care of the sick, cleaning, washing and waste disposal. All these activities are – in most cultures - largely undertaken by women. It is women who are often the caregivers for those who fall ill, who have to fetch and manage water for both the family and productive purposes, and who have the greatest need for private and safe sanitation facilities. Because of their dependency on safe water, women have accumulated considerable knowledge about water resources, including location, quality, and storage methods. They are often the most motivated to ensure that water supply and sanitation facilities are in good order, as they know from experience the vital contribution that both water and sanitation make to their well-being.

Yet, despite global commitments made in the areas of water supply and sanitation, and recognition of women’s concerns, the equitable divisions of power, work, access to and control of resources between women and men are hardly ever addressed. Rather, in efforts to improve management of the world’s finite water resources and extend access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation, the central role of women in water management is often overlooked. Women often have no voice in decisions about the kind of services they receive. This is unfortunate, because women bear the greatest burden when it comes to inappropriate technologies or inadequate access to safe water and adequate sanitation. Women also suffer disproportionately from water-related disasters such as floods and contamination, as they often do not receive warnings or other information about possible hazards and risks.

The importance of involving both women and men in the management of water and sanitation has been recognized at the global level, since the 1977 United Nations Water Conference at Mar del Plata and during the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, 1981-1990. Among the guiding principles adopted at the International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin (January 1992), principle No. 3 explicitly recognizes the pivotal role of women as providers and users of water and guardians of the living environment. At the same time, it acknowledges that this pivotal role “… has seldom been reflected in institutional arrangements for the development and management of water resources.” Dublin was followed by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which outlined approaches to the management and use of water resources (Chapter 18 of Agenda 21) and referred to the participation, capacity building, education and mobilization of women as decision makers and managers of water resources and sanitation. In the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), para 25(a), governments agreed to: “… support capacity-building for water and sanitation infrastructure and services development, ensuring that such infrastructure and services meet the needs of the poor and are gender-sensitive.” In December 2003 at the end of the International Year of Freshwater, the General Assembly proclaimed, building on all these commitments, in its resolution 58/217 the time span from 2005 to 2015 as the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life,” and called on all levels to focus on the implementation of water-related programmes and projects, “whilst striving to ensure women’s participation and involvement in water-related development efforts …”. The Millennium Development Goals, which have the same timeframe as the Water for Life Decade, include 2015 targets on gender equality and empowerment of women, as well as on safe water and sanitation.

In order to be truly effective and sustainable, it is, first, crucial to mainstream gender perspectives into water resource management and sanitation policies to ensure that the specific needs and concerns of women and men from all social groups are taken into account. Second, it is vitally important to determine what people (consumers of water and sanitation) want, what they can and will contribute and how they will participate in making decisions on the types and levels of service, location of facilities and operation and maintenance. For reaching this second goal, it is indispensable to analyse a given target group from a gender perspective.

Drawing on case studies from Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, Europe and Asia, the objectives of this article are to analyse the central role women play in providing, managing and safeguarding water resources and sanitation as well as their specific needs and vulnerabilities. The authors examine the issues of particular concern to men and women, and provide recommendations for strategies to mainstream gender in water resources management and sanitation.

II. Issues of particular concern to women and men

A. Equitable access to water supply

Access to safe drinking water is a basic human right and essential for achieving gender equality, sustainable development and poverty alleviation. In spite of its paramount importance to human well-being, water is not mentioned in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948. Article 25.1 states: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services,” but water is not mentioned explicitly. Since lack of access to freshwater is one of the most serious threats for mankind in the 21st century, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted in 2002 the General Comment No. 15, which states: “The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses.”

Yet, at the end of 2002 still some 1.1 billion people, or 18 percent of the world’s population, lacked access to safe drinking water, while 2.6 billion or 40 percent of the world’s population lacked access to improved sanitation services. At the Millennium Summit in 2000, Heads of State pledged to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water by the year 2015. This “Millennium Development Goal” (MDG) was reinforced by a similar goal for sanitation contained in para 8 of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) agreed to at WSSD in 2002. The additional investment required to meet the Millennium Development Goals for safe drinking water and basic sanitation is estimated at approximately $30 billion a year, twice the amount of what is currently spent in those countries that have large numbers of people without access (Devarajan, Miller and Swanson 2002).

Even though the water and sanitation goals seem ambitious to some, they are very modest. First, they only consider to half the population without these basic amenities, and second, the definitions of access include the most basic facilities—certainly not a tap and a latrine in every house. The WHO definition of access to water varies according to location, but averages 20 litres per person per day within one kilometre walking distance from the household. Today, African women may walk over six kilometers per day in search of water, spending as much as eight hours collecting water (UNFPA 2002). The carrying of water over long distances is, moreover, a health hazard, especially during development and pregnancy periods. During daily water collection, women face the risk of drowning (from floods) and of injuries from attacks. In most countries, it is often girls who are given the task of collecting water, carrying 15 to 20 litres of water from the water point back home. Insufficient access to water and sanitation can, thus, be the reason why girls are kept out of school. In many developing countries, girls are furthermore often not permitted to attend schools that do not have latrines, because their privacy and modesty might be violated (World Bank 2004).

Access to freshwater and sanitation, therefore, not only improves the health of a family, but it also often enables girls to go to school. Having water points nearer the homestead frees up time from fetching water and allows women to use their time more productively—for professional training, childcare, growing food and income generation.

Examples

In Morocco, the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project of the World Bank aimed at reducing the burden of girls “who were traditionally involved in fetching water” in order to improve their school attendance. In the six provinces where the project is based, it was found that girls’ school attendance increased by 20 percent in four years, attributed in part to the fact that girls spent less time fetching water. It was also found that convenient access to safe water reduced the time spent fetching water by women and young girls by 50 to 90 percent (World Bank 2003).

In the Est-Mono region of Togo, where only 10 percent of the population has access to potable water, a project aimed at improving access to water and sanitation facilities in schools did not adequately take a gender perspective into account. Thus, the toilets did not meet everyone’s needs and fell into disuse. Given these problems, a new project design encouraged the participation of all villagers, boy and girl students, men and women teachers and administrators. Following the diagnosis of the problem in schools, an action plan for hygiene promotion was approved by the schools and the villages. The project provided water and sanitation facilities, as well as educational resources, to each village school. Addressing gender imbalances among students and ensuring the participation of the entire community has led to impacts far beyond the immediate results. Girls have taken a leadership role and increased their self-esteem. Gender-balanced School Health Committees are responsible for the equipment and oversee hygiene (Alouka forthcoming).

Leaving women out of the project design may result in inadvertently increasing the women’s burden. For example, in eastern Nepal the tap-stands and tube-wells of the improved water services in Hiel Village were “…located along the roadside where women cannot bathe freely and wash their clothes comfortably for fear of being seen by men.” In order to avoid this, women in Hiel village carry water all the way to their homes several times each day, spending significant amounts of time and energy to do this. In three villages women reported waiting until dark to undertake these activities. All these women complained that the surveyors had not involved them in designing the tapstands or wells (Regmi and Fawcett 1999).

B. Equitable access to land rights and water for productive use

Equitable access to water for productive use can empower women and address the root causes of poverty and gender inequality. Lack of access (ownership) to land may be the underlying cause of women’s limited access to water and a key reason for the greater poverty of female-headed households, as has been shown in research studies carried out by the World Bank (Blackden and Bhanu 1999). Women hold title to less than 2 percent of the world’s private land (Deda and Rubian 2004), and in many countries (e.g., most of Latin America), land ownership is a precondition for access to water. Land reforms that allocated legal land tenure to the heads of households or permanent agricultural workers (who are generally male) resulted in women losing any legal claim to water (Gender and Water Alliance 2003). Moreover, even where women do have a legal right to land, customs often prevent them from taking de facto control of land and natural resources, for instance, in Zimbabwe, Burkina Faso and Cameroon (Sass 2002).

In poor regions, however, food security is often dependent on women's subsistence production to feed the population. Evidence has shown that women are responsible for half of the world's food production (as opposed to cash crops) and rural women produce between 60 - 80 percent of the food in most developing countries (FAO 1995). Women also have an important role in establishing sustainable use of resources in small-scale fishing communities, and their knowledge is valuable for managing and protecting watersheds. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) reports an increasing “feminization of agriculture” due to wars, pandemics and the exodus of men seeking paid work in urban areas (FAO 2003). Similarly, the International Fund for Agricultural Development highlighted the rise in the number of women being heads of rural households in the developing world; these women are put in the position of farming the land and providing for their families alone, without legal rights to water and land (Gender and Water Alliance 2003).

Women's role in agricultural production, however, is also undervalued. Women’s access to water is generally seen in domestic terms, i.e., time spent on water collection or the availability of adequate water and sanitation services. This article argues that access might better be linked to productive activities, or the opportunity cost of time and energy spent in fetching water that detracts from the overall productivity and efficiency of women. The real problem faced by many female farmers, however, is that they have very little or no access to irrigation water for agricultural purposes and are entirely dependent on rainfall. Therefore, it is crucial to accord to women recognition as landholders and contributors to the development process. They need to have secure access to land and its water resources for productive use in agriculture and livestock rearing. Water is also needed for a range of small enterprises, including: home gardens in peri-urban areas (which are often overlooked in agricultural statistics); growing fruit trees; raising poultry; preparing food, etc. Responding to the needs of poor farmers requires a detailed understanding of men’s and women’s local knowledge systems, resource utilization and income generating opportunities.

Examples

The Self-Employed Women’s Association in India (SEWA) focussed on gaining access to water for productive enterprises, which are often part of the so-called self-employed workers segment. Today more than 93 percent of all workers in India are considered self-employed workers, more than half of who are women (Makiko 2004). SEWA has helped selected areas in India to develop plastic-lined ponds for water conservation, with technical support and training provided by the Foundation for Public Interest (FPI). Local women are now managing their own village ponds, including all bookkeeping and accounts. In eight villages of Banaskantha district of Gujarat, women have formed their own water committees. Through these they undertake contour binding, building checkdams, repair of village ponds and other water conservation related construction (SEWA Website).

In Nigeria, the construction of a tourist resort on the Obudu plateau led to deforestation and exacerbated pre-existing pressures on water resources and the environment, such as overgrazing and unsustainable agricultural practices. The local Becheve women complained about wasted time in collecting water, poor quality and quantity of water and poor family health. Consequently, the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) started a Watershed Management Project on the Obudu plateau in 1999, and encouraged women to get involved in the project’s decision-making process. Women leaders were elected on the management committee, a source of pride for women in the community, and became involved in the construction and maintenance of a water reservoir. The time for collecting water was considerably reduced and allowed women to spend more time on income generating activities like farming and marketing. A conflict between the Becheve women and the Fulani men over access to water was resolved through negotiation, and the women were ensured timely access to water. Moreover the women’s healthcare burden was reduced, with a 45 percent reduction in cases of diarrhoea in 2004 (Majekodunmi forthcoming).

C. Access to sanitation

Lack of sanitation and poor hygiene cause water-borne diseases, such as diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and several parasitic infections. Moreover, the incidence of these diseases and others linked to poor sanitation—e.g., round worm, whip worm, guinea worm, and schistosomiasis—is highest among the poor, especially school-aged children (WHO 1997). These diseases have a strong negative impact on the children’s state of health, their nutrition and their learning capacities, and contribute to significant absences from school (Nokes and Bundy 1993; Miguel and Kremer 2003). More than 2.2 million people in developing countries, most of them children, die each year from diseases related to lack of access to safe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene. The social and environmental health costs caused by ignoring the need to address sanitation are, thus, far too great.

A focus on gender differences is of particular importance with regard to sanitation facilities. As the examples below show, the availability of latrines in schools can, by providing privacy and dignity, enable girls to get an education, particularly after they reach puberty. Moreover, the design and the location of latrines close to home may reduce violence against women, which may occur when women have to relieve themselves in the open after nightfall. They may also suffer gastric disorders from waiting until dark to defecate in the open. Particular concerns include ensuring privacy and security, notably for girls and women (especially in common facilities), and designs that take account of specific needs, such as of small children or menstruating girls. It is important that the public institutions with the most extensive and sustained public outreach—schools and health centres—should become learning and demonstration centres for improved hygiene practices. Women play a crucial role in influencing the hygiene behaviours of young children, and men can—and should—also serve as role models in sustaining changes in habits. The success and effective use of water and sanitation facilities will depend on the involvement of both women and men in selecting the location and technology of such facilities, and taking responsibility for operation and maintenance.

Examples

In eight slums in the Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu State, India, latrines constructed by the municipal corporation had all became unserviceable due to poor maintenance. The women reported that “the non-maintenance of the latrines caused faecal worms to generate and reproduce, and they could be found nearby the water taps, and even inside the walls of their houses.” Poor sanitation and contaminated water affected all families with disease, increasing their medical expenses. Male community leaders did not take any steps to provide improved facilities. Requests to the government for better services were of no avail until the people joined forces with Gramalaya, an NGO working on water and sanitation projects. The project design called for the installation of drinking water facilities and individual toilets, as well as community mobilization with a focus on gender mainstreaming. WaterAid covered the equipment and installation costs, while Gramalaya covered the capacity building and community mobilization components. The government provided the land sites, electricity, water supply, and loans to community members. The community is not only benefiting from improved water and sanitation facilities, better health and increased resources for community development initiatives, but the women have also gained self-confidence. Women who were once treated poorly by officials are now given respect when they visit government offices (Berna forthcoming).

The School Sanitation and Hygiene Education (SSHE) campaign, a joint project of UNICEF and the IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) and others, aims to provide water and sanitary facilities in schools to improve health of all pupils and encourage girls to attend school. Research and surveys suggest that separate facilities need to be provided for girls and boys, if girls are not to be discouraged from attending school. The project began in February 2000 in Burkina Faso, Colombia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Viet Nam and Zambia. With an emphasis on local participation, SSHE provides low-cost teaching aids, inexpensive, community developed technology and life-skills hygiene education to primary schools

(See http://www.unicef.org/wes/index_schools.html).

In Mozambique, a similar project supported the construction of latrines for boys, girls and teachers, and hand-washing facilities for hygiene practice. Not only have these initiatives provided safer, healthier learning environments, they have also encouraged girls to complete their basic schooling. The improved hygienic conditions have given girls back their books and their dignity (UNICEF 2003a). In Bangladesh, a school sanitation project with separate facilities for boys and girls helped boost girls’ school attendance 11 percent per year, on average, from 1992 to 1999 (UNICEF 2003b).

D. Capacity building

Building capacity means bringing together more resources, more people (both women and men) and more skills. Yet, when looking closely at capacity building in water supply and sanitation in developing countries, it becomes clear that most of the training is aimed at water resources and water supply specialists, with very few programmes aimed at expertise in social development, sanitation or hygiene education.

To ensure sustainability, capacity building has to continue beyond project implementation, with a gradual scaling down to those responsible for operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation, who are primarily women. Consequently, targeting women for training and capacity building is critical to the sustainability of water and sanitation initiatives, particularly in technical and managerial roles, to ensure their presence in the decision-making process. Moreover, targeting women for training as the main role models and “teachers” within the household is a cost-effective way of raising awareness and skills.

Examples

In Uganda, a school sanitation and hygiene programme was shared between the ministries of water and education, both of which were headed by women. Working together, the ministers are devising affirmative action programmes to encourage girls to get a better technical education and professional background.

Supporting training of female technicians and other staff facilitates the achievement of the targets for improving access to safe water and sanitation. For example, in the Mantsonyane district in Lesotho, the village water committee elects a “Water Minder,” who is given the tools for the maintenance of the water system and the latrines. A maintenance fund is collected from villagers and administered by the water committee. Up to 90 percent of the water minders are women. Villagers tend to elect women because they have wide experience with water and sanitation, are more often available on the spot, and are most directly involved in matters of family health and hygiene.

In the Ejura-Sekyedumasi District of Ghana, the Ghana Rural Water Project (GRWP) was initiated by World Vision Ghana (WVG) to address a serious infestation of guinea worm and poor access to potable drinking water. The project has shifted from a strictly technology-driven approach to a community-based, people-oriented, demand-driven focus, including gender mainstreaming, poverty alleviation and the well-being of children. Through the GRWP initiative, WVG supplied the village with two boreholes fitted with hand pumps, two public Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines and a urinal. The community has since identified this water and sanitation project as having had a high level of community participation and gender integration. It has improved the education of girls, who accounted for 53 per cent of primary school students in 2005, compared to 43 per cent in 1995 (Poku Sam forthcoming).

The watershed of the El Naranjo River in Guatemala used to have clean water, but the upper watershed now has a scarce and polluted water supply. The communities that depend on its water have a variety of different water needs that vary between men and women and urban and rural communities. These various needs have generated conflicts that go beyond local institutional capacity as well as traditional dispute-settling mechanisms. They have raised many questions for local authorities and leaders regarding current legal regulations, and their application to the administration of water. In 2002, the Solar Foundation started a three-year project with the support of NOVIB (the Dutch affiliate of Oxfam) to promote social peace through the construction of a more sustainable resource-community relationship. The project focuses on the rights and obligations of users, service providers and local public authorities, and monitors trends in water use. Through training in social planning and organization processes, local leaders and authorities are learning about sustainable management of resources to meet the communities’ needs (van den Hooven forthcoming).

E. Participation and equity

Women are under-represented in the “water world,” with careers and training in water management dominated by men. If water management is to be democratic and transparent – and to represent the needs of the people—both men and women must have an equal say. In order to participate effectively in water management, women may have to overcome specific social barriers that restrict their participation in community-based forums or public consultations that can influence policies on water. While it may be hard to imagine a change in orientation of water policy in many countries in the near future, affirmative action policies such as “women in water” awards and a bursary for young women to take up careers in the water sector in South Africa have proved to be a successful means of empowering women. Furthermore, the principle of non-sexism was enshrined in South Africa’s 1996 constitution, and a quota system for women’s participation cuts across all sectors. South African laws are “gender-biased,” i.e., the government can only procure materials and services from companies where at least 30 percent of the jobs are held by women. Such “enforced” participation gave women confidence to emancipate themselves. The empowerment of women has proved to be essential for alleviating poverty and delivering basic services in South Africa. A start has been made through the increase of women serving as ministers for water and environment (now numbering about 40 world wide), but the empowerment of women as water managers must also been felt at the grassroots level.

Examples

Uganda has had an affirmative action programme since 1997. This mandates that all administrative levels from cabinet down to village should include at least 30 percent women. As a result, women raised their voices and have been trained to locate water sources in the village, to decide on the location of facilities and to repair pumps. The incidence of breakdown has decreased considerably. Women have also participated in businesses: in rural areas, setting up shops to store spare parts for boreholes and in urban areas, managing water systems. In water user associations, women are often responsible for the finances.

The WASH campaign, organized by the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), is bringing its message of “Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for all” to women and men in over 40 countries. The Council includes UN organizations, NGOs, bilateral donors, institutions and the private sector. A recent initiative called “African Ministerial Initiative on WASH” (AMIWASH) aims to assist African countries to achieve the MDGs in water and sanitation. Leading this effort is the Chair of the African Ministerial Council on Water (AMCOW), Maria Mutagamba, Minister of State for Water of Uganda. The initiative includes the formation of a Group of Women Leaders (Women Leaders for WASH) to champion the role of women in decision-making, capacity building, educating children on sanitation and hygiene, and mobilizing political will around other priorities such as the linkages between water, sanitation, hygiene and HIV/AIDS (WSSCC and AMCOW 2004).

In Ukraine, the cleaning of railway oil tanks combined with an inadequate sewerage system caused overflows of sewage into houses and onto the streets. When women approached the local authority, they were denied funds to solve the problem. With the help of an environmental NGO, women met with residents, launched a political campaign and filed a legal suit against the local authority. As a result, the government allocated resources to finish construction of a sewage pump, financed environmental works, and closed the hazardous oil-tank cleaning facility (Khosla 2002).

Other examples demonstrate that projects are more effective when women play a pivotal role. For instance, women in the town of La Sirena in Colombia wanted to improve the quality of water in the Canaveralejo River, which was highly contaminated. In 1995 the women struggled to secure leadership positions on the action board. The board was run by men, and the women had to impose themselves to participate. Once the women proved themselves capable and were in a leadership position, a treatment plant was constructed. Since then there have been many improvements. For example, diarrhoea and other children’s skin diseases have been reduced, and the town was spared in a cholera epidemic (IRC undated-a).

But men often have to be encouraged to enable the women to participate. In Hoto village, Baluchistan (Pakistan), where women follow a strict form of purdah, a participatory action research team went to help the village improve its water management in 1994. For a year the men would not give permission to the action team to meet the women of the village. Eventually, the women were able to participate in a joint meeting, and put up a proposal to build a new water tank on unused land, which would provide water to the non-functioning public standpipes. The women’s solution, which was far more cost-effective, was adopted over a male proposal. Moreover, after this initial success, women became active participants in decision-making, and significant changes have been made in their lives through hygiene education. Most significant has been the demand for education for their daughters. In 1998, a new girls’ school was opened in Hoto. Traditional leaders have been impressed by the result of the project. The same approach is now taken in other villages (IRC undated-b).

F. Protection of the resource base: indigenous perspective

Indigenous people possess traditional knowledge and skills concerning the sensing/locating of water and protection of the source. Water sources on indigenous lands are often considered a sacred element, and indigenous women may be the holders of “water knowledge.” Their traditional land management skills often provide the most effective method of water resource management in their settlement areas. However, due to their lack of sovereignty over natural resources, indigenous people are seriously affected by their uncompensated and unsustainable loss of water to farming and other industries introduced from outside their communities. In the worst cases, governments have closed water sources in an effort to forcibly relocate indigenous people from their traditional territories. In other instances, indigenous peoples are not provided with clean safe drinking water to the same level as other nationals in a given country.

Agenda 21 (para 26.5) calls for international and national organizations to draw on the active participation of indigenous people and their communities and “…to incorporate their values, views and knowledge, including the unique contribution of indigenous women, in resource management...” In para 26.9 international development agencies and Governments were requested to “…commit financial and other resources to education and training for indigenous communities to develop their capacities to achieve sustainable self-development, and to contribute to and participate in sustainable and equitable development at the national level.” Particular attention is to be given to strengthening the role of indigenous women.

Examples

In the Witjira National Park in Australia, pastoralists had caused serious deterioration of the “mound springs” (referred to as the Tjurkurpa sites) in the Great Artesian Basin. Due to the fencing for livestock and damage to many water sources, Aboriginal people were not able to travel and were denied access to sites that were of high cultural significance. When p pastoralists started to move away from the mound springs to seek new water sources for their stock, the Aboriginal people who stayed at the springs were then able to return to their traditional land management practices. Indigenous peoples combined traditional land management skills and western scientific methods to restore the mound springs. They negotiated a cooperative management structure with National Parks; they have a Board of Management with a majority of Irrwanyere people on it, who also hold a 99-year lease over the park. The park remains the property of the South Australian Government but the lease allows the Irrwanyere people to live on, use and manage the park in accordance with the plan of management. Through the process of cooperative management, some of the sites have been restored (Dean Ah Chee 1995).

In some cases, women are taking the lead in their communities to protect water resources. In the community of São João D’Aliança in central Brazil, the local Union of Rural Workers in collaboration with University of Brasília (UnB) designed a community water project to stop pollution of the das Brancas River and to rehabilitate original vegetation along the river banks. In the women-led initiative, called the “Water Women” project, each group of women adapted environmentally-friendly practices to their every day activities. The Water Women NGO was launched in April 2002 to support social and environmental development of the region, with a focus on improving women’s situations, generating new jobs and income, providing education to youth and adults and preserving the existing culture and traditions. Community education taught local people not to dump their sewage into the river, and how to plant native species of trees along the river banks. As a result, there is a visible absence of waste in the river, a considerable growth of new vegetation of native species on the river banks and decreased soil erosion. Women’s political participation was strengthened, and public perceptions regarding their leadership capabilities were changed (Souza forthcoming).

G. Resource Mobilization

The volume of external financial assistance is not likely to grow fast enough to meet water and sanitation needs around the world. Governments will have to continue to be primarily responsible for raising and using public funds (from general revenue, cross subsidization, user fees, and borrowing) for water resources and sanitation infrastructure needs. Formal and informal women's organizations and networks can play important and stimulating roles in mobilizing resources for sustainable and equitable water and land management projects. Moreover, the role of women in managing and maintaining water and sanitation facilities varies from fundraising to active work on construction, preventive maintenance and repairs to paying for water with labour. While their potential contributions are considerable, women in developing countries often lack access to tools such as computers and Internet to disseminate their ideas and apply for funds. Therefore, instructing women in project management and fund raising may be a means to empower them to launch new projects and to contribute to poverty alleviation independently.

Funding may also be provided by local private companies or entrepreneurs who could be encouraged through government incentive programmes. However, such incentive programmes should be available to both women and men, perhaps in the form of micro-credit. Able-bodied members of households can make a contribution in kind in the form of digging the toilet pit or construction of rainwater catchments. More attention could be given to better intra-household sharing between women and men of cash and labour contributions for constructing household-level water and sanitation facilities. Payment of fees to cover recurrent costs for operation and maintenance should be adapted to local circumstances, for instance, clustered around harvest time, taking into account competing demands for money at certain times of year.

Examples

In Mabule village in South Africa, an unhygienic environment and lack of suitable sanitation facilities resulted in a high prevalence of diseases such as cholera. For many women and girls, visiting the sanitation facilities had become very difficult because of the poor construction and hygiene. The Mabule Sanitation Project was developed to respond to these problems through a joint initiative of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) and the community, with funding from Mvula Trust. The DWAF agreed to provide funding for sanitation projects in communities where there was gender-balanced decision-making. The project promoted hygiene education for women, and established a brick-making project for latrine construction and to generate cash. Because of these, the community now has safe, hygienic and attractive toilets and improved health and hygiene. There is increased acceptance of women’s leadership roles by community members, local government and NGOs, as well as an increased collaboration between women and men. The brick-making project employs up to 10 people, six of whom are women, and the community has access to affordable bricks (Jabu forthcoming).

The Swayam Shikshan Prayog in India has facilitated the formation of over 1,000 women’s savings and credit groups that have mobilized their own savings to provide loans for one another. Women started organizing to address development issues such as water supply in their communities (Swayam Shikshan Prayog Project Website http://www.sspindia.org/index.htm).

Women in rural areas in Lesotho have a tradition of saving small amounts of money each month for important purposes like traditional funerals. Such traditional sources of investment could be used for water and sanitation facilities if supplemented by seed money from NGOs or other sources.

H. Privatisation, pricing and the right to water

A very controversial issue at the international level is privatisation of water services. Those who are opposed to privatising water services argue that water is a fundamental human right and not a commodity that can be bought and sold for profit. This is in line with the November 2002 ruling (General Comment No. 15) of the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights that states that access to adequate amounts of clean water for personal and domestic use is a fundamental human right. The Committee also stressed the role of states in providing sufficient, affordable, physically accessible and safe water to all. While this decision was not legally binding, it does carry the weight and influence of a “soft law.” Furthermore, it represented a shift in the international arena, from the 1990s view that water in all its competing uses should be recognized as an economic good (Dublin Principle No. 4, Report of the International Conference on Water and the Environment 1992), to a new understanding that water should also be treated as a social and cultural good. The opponents of water privatisation further point to recent empirical evidence which shows that privatisation in developing countries can have negative consequences in terms of water distribution for the poor, who are unable to pay for adequate supplies (Bayliss 2001).

At the same time, those in favour of private sector involvement point out that water pricing is required to improve water allocation and efficiency and encourage the resource’s conservation. When water has a price, people have a strong motivation to use it more efficiently. Nonetheless, whether or not water has a price is not directly related to private sector involvement in water services. Partnerships involving both public and private providers can be very effective in expanding services to a wider network of customers. As long as government retains oversight over water quality and ownership of the resource, private sector involvement can provide positive benefits.

Essentially, two key requirements need to be ensured by governments: first, access to adequate amounts of clean water and sanitation as a basic human right; and second, sufficient water to maintain ecosystem integrity. Beyond these needs, it is generally accepted that users should pay a price for their water. Otherwise, supply systems will not be sustainable and water services cannot be expanded to meet the needs of a growing population. Sustainable cost recovery could include targeted subsidies for the poor and demand management to discourage waste. Increasing block rates, which charge consumers more per unit as their consumption increases, would encourage conservation of the resource. Large profits for private companies and denying access to poor people who cannot afford to pay are inappropriate. There has been a general call that water should not be included under th