THEORY NAME: Merrill's First Principles of Instruction

THEORIST NAME: M. David Merrill, Utah State University

ASSOCIATED LEARNING THEORY

MODEL / DESCRIPTION
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Reigeluth (1999) distinguishes two major kinds of instructional methods: basic methods and variable methods.

First Principles is an attempt by Merrill to identify what Reigeluth calls basic methods but which the author prefers to call first principles. The author will refer to variable methods as programs and practices. A principle (basic method) is a relationship that is always true under appropriate conditions regardless of program or practice (variable methods). A practice is a specific instructional activity. A program is an approach consisting of a set of prescribed practices. Practices always implement or fail to implement underlying principles whether these principles are specified or not. A given instructional approach may only emphasize the implementation of one or more of these instructional principles.

THEORY DESCRIPTION
What are the properties of first principles of instruction?

First, learning from a given program will be facilitated in direct proportion to its implementation of first principles.
Second, first principles of instruction can be implemented in any delivery system or using any instructional architecture. Third, first principles of instruction are design oriented rather than learning oriented. They relate to creating learning environments and products rather than describing how learners acquire knowledge and skill from these environments or products.

Many current instructional models suggest that the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-based and involve the student in four distinct phases of learning: (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration or these skills into real world activities.

MODEL

At the top level the instructional design prescriptions based on first principles are as follows:

Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.
Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge3.
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.

THEORY SPECIFICATIONS
DESIRED GOAL / OUTCOME

PRINCIPLES

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

MEDIA DESCRIPTION
Media plays two important roles.

First, media represents referents in the real world. Effective instruction depends on these representation roles to be complete and appropriate.

Second, media is a delivery system to convey the instruction to the student. A wide variety of delivery systems are available and all have a role to play. When used appropriately one delivery system is unlikely to be more effective than another.

Gratuitous illustrations make little or no instructional contribution and are often ignored or may interfere with efficient learning.

ROLE OF THE LEARNER

ROLE OF THE FACILITATOR

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
In the following paragraphs, Merrill elaborates on the instructional phases and suggests some specific prescriptions that have been identified from an examination of various theories, models and methods. The primary prescription and its corollaries are concisely stated first and the following paragraphs elaborate each of these prescriptions.

Problem
Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.

Learning is facilitated when learners are shown the task that they will be able to do or the problem they will be able to solve as a result of completing a module or course.

Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged at the problem or task level not just the operation or action level.

Learning is facilitated when learners solve a progression of problems that are explicitly compared to one another.

Problems should be authentic, real world, and, if possible, personal. Showing learners the task or problem they will be able to solve is more effective than stating abstract learning objectives. Learning to solve a problem involves four levels of instruction: the problem, the tasks required to solve the problem, the operations that comprise the tasks, the actions that comprise the operations.

Effective instruction must engage students in all four levels of performance: the action-level, the operation-level, the task-level, and the problem level. Too much instruction is limited to the action or operation level and does not involve learners in the more integrative task or problem levels. Some of the problems that students must learn to solve are very complex. A sink-or-swim approach is likely to discourage students.

To master a complex problem students must first start with a less complex problem. When the first problem is mastered then students are given a more complex problem. Through a progression of increasingly complex problems the students’ skills gradually improve until they are able to solve complex problems. In too much instruction, even when it is problem-oriented, students are given only a single problem. Learning is best when there is a progression of problems to solve and when the problems start easy and then get harder and harder.

Sometimes it is difficult to find a simple version of a complex problem. In this situation the coach must actually do some of the problem solving for the students and assist the students to accomplish the remaining tasks or operations. With each successive problem the coach does less and less, while requiring students to do more and more, of the operations and tasks required.

Learning is best when there is a series of problems to solve and when coaching is gradually withdrawn for each succeeding problem. When successive problems are directly compared with each other students are able to tune their mental model of the problems and build a better abstract mental model that is more likely to transfer to new

Activation
Learning is facilitated when relevant previous experience is activated.

Learners are directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

Learners are provided relevant experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

Learners are given the opportunity to demonstrate their previously acquired knowledge or skill.

It has long been a tenant of education to start where the child is. If students have had relevant experience then the first phase of learning is to be sure that this relevant information is activated ready for use as a foundation for the new knowledge. If students have not
had sufficient relevant experience, then the first phase of learning a new skill should be to provide three-dimensional experience that they can use as a foundation for the new knowledge.

Activation is more than merely testing prerequisite knowledge. It is activating those mental models that can be modified or tuned to enable learners to incorporate the new knowledge into their existing knowledge. When learners feel that they already know some of the material to be taught, then their existing experience can be activated by an appropriate opportunity to demonstrate what they already know. This activity can be used to help direct students to the yet to be learned new material and thus result in more efficient instruction. Requiring students to complete a pretest of the material to be taught when they don’t feel that they know the material is frustrating and not productive in activating prior experience. A simple recall of information is seldom effective as an activating experience.

Demonstration
Learning is facilitated when the instruction demonstrates what is to be learned rather than merely telling information about what is to be learned.

Learning is facilitated when the demonstration is consistent with the learning goal.

Learning is facilitated when learners are provided appropriate learner guidance including some of the following: (a) learners are directed to relevant information, (b) multiple representations are used for the demonstrations, or (c) multiple demonstrations are explicitly compared.

Learning is facilitated when media plays a relevant instructional role.

Knowledge to be learned exists at two levels: the general-level and the specific-level. Too often information is presented at the general level rather than at the specific level of examples. Learning is best when students are shown (examples) rather than told (generalities).
A fundamental purpose of instruction is to promote the development of appropriate mental models for solving problems. A mental model is a cognitive structure and associated cognitive processing required for
solving a class of problems (Mayer, 1992).

Merrill (1994, 1997) identifies the knowledge structure, presentation, practice, and learner guidance for each of these different kinds of learning outcomes that are consistent with this kind of learning. Learning is facilitated when the information is consistent with the learning goal. Instructional consistency was stressed by Gagné (1965, 1985) and elaborated by Merrill (1994). van Merriënboer (1997) has extended this work in the context of problem-based instruction.

The consistency criterion should be applied first. If demonstrations are inconsistent then it doesn't matter if there is learner guidance or if the media is relevant. One role of instruction is to provide appropriate learner guidance to facilitate learning. One form of guidance is to focus students’ attention on relevant information. Early in an instructional presentation this attention focusing function facilitates knowledge acquisition. However, as the instruction progresses this information focusing role should be faded and students expected to attend to and focus their own attention on the relevant aspects of the information. Learning is facilitated when learners are directed to important information and when this direction is gradually faded (Andre, 1997).

Another form of guidance is to provide learners with multiple representations of the ideas being taught and the demonstration being provided. When learners are explicitly directed to compare different viewpoints they are forced to tune their mental models to provide a broader perspective.

Application
Learning is facilitated when learners are required to use their new knowledge or skill to solve
problems.
Learning is facilitated when the application (practice) and the posttest are consistent with the
stated or implied objectives: (a) information-about practice -- recall or recognize information, (b)
parts-of practice -- locate, name, and/or describe each part, (c) kinds-of practice -- identify new
examples of each kind, (d) how-to practice -- do the procedure and (e) what-happens practice --
predict a consequence of a process given conditions, or find faulted conditions given an
unexpected consequence.
Learning is facilitated when learners are guided in their problem solving by appropriate feedback
and coaching, including error detection and correction, and when this coaching is gradually
withdrawn.
Learning is facilitated when learners are required to solve a sequence of varied problems.
No one would expect an athlete or musician to perform without hours of practice. Yet, much
instruction seems to assume when it comes to cognitive skills that such practice is unnecessary.
Appropriate practice is the single most neglected aspect of effective instruction. Answering multipleMerrill
First Principles
8
choice questions may be consistent with recall of information, but information recall should always be a
supportive objective rather than a terminal objective. Learning is facilitated when learners are required to
use their newly acquired knowledge or skill.
Just as there are different components of knowledge, presentation, and learner guidance appropriate for
different kinds of instructional goals, so there are different kinds of practice appropriate for different
instructional goals. Engaging in practice that is inconsistent with the desired instructional goal will do little
to improve performance. Gagné (1965, 1985) and Merrill (1994, 1997) identify appropriate practice for
each of the kinds of knowledge and skill identified. Learning is facilitated when the practice is consistent
with the learning goal. The consistency criterion should be applied first. If the application is inconsistent
with the intended goals of the instruction, then it will be ineffective and it doesn’t matter whether or not
there is appropriate coaching and feedback or a sequence of problems.
Making errors is a natural consequence of problem solving. Most learners learn from the errors they
make, especially when they are shown how to recognize the error, how to recover from the error, and how
to avoid the error in the future. Error diagnosis and correction is a fundamental principle of Minimialism
(van der Meij & Carroll, 1998).
Just as practicing a scale once is insufficient for learning a musical skill, so applying knowledge to a
single problem is insufficient for learning a cognitive skill. Adequate practice provides multiple
opportunities for learners to use their new knowledge or skill for a variety of problems.
Integration
Learning is facilitated when learners are encouraged to integrate (transfer) the new knowledge or skill
into their everyday life.
Learning is facilitated when learners are given an opportunity to publicly demonstrate their new
knowledge or skill
Learning is facilitated when learners can reflect-on, discuss, and defend their new knowledge or
skill.
Learning is facilitated when learners can create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use
their new knowledge or skills.
Much is said about the importance of motivation. Often glitz, animation, multimedia, and games are
justified as motivational elements of an instructional product. However, for the most part, these aspects
have a temporary effect on motivation. The real motivation for learners is learning. When learners are able
to demonstrate improvement in skill, they are motivated to perform even better. It is the ability to show a
new skill or an improvement in a skill that provides motivation. Learning is facilitated when learners can
demonstrate skill improvement.
Knowledge and skill is soon forgotten if it is not made a part of the learner's life beyond instruction.
Often skills need to be adapted or modified to fit into the learner's world. Learners needs the opportunity to
reflect on, defend, and share what they have learned if it is to become part of their available repertoire.

ASSESSMENT METHODS

RESEARCH AND APPLICATION
RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESIS
The hypotheses:

1. Learning from a given instructional program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the implementation of first principles of instruction.
2. Learning from a given instructional program will be facilitated in direct proportion to the degree that first principles of instruction are explicitly implemented rather than haphazardly implemented.

CONTEXT TESTED

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

CONSTRUCTS / VARIABLES

RESEARCH DESCRIPTION

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